Guidelines for Writing Papers

General Notes for Writing Papers

Whatever approach you take to your paper, what you write should represent your own thoughts; you may consult reviews or books or the papers of your friends, perhaps mentioning whether or not you agree with them, but do not copy from them. Write your own opinions in your own words. You should try to take notes while you watch the film and/or immediately afterwards), jotting down whatever you find interesting or puzzling. As soon as possible, go over your notes and fill them out with further thoughts and comments. Remember that you will probably have forgotten the film after a few days, so, unless you have your own video copy, the earlier you start working on your paper, the better. With a videotape or DVD of a film you are analyzing, take time to review the specific scenes you will be discussing several times, possibly in slow motion or with the freeze-frame feature, so that you are thoroughly familiar with how they are constructed and what is in them. This is the time to take detailed notes if you will be writing the actual paper some time later. Be sure to take advantage of DVD bonus materials and audio commentaries, but do not simply paraphrase them – remember that you are not the only one who has seen the DVD, and your instructor will easily be able to prove plagiarism by comparing your paper and others to the DVD materials and to comments accessible through the Internet Movie Data Base or “Google” searches. Preparing a survey of other people’s reactions to a film might be a valid topic for a more advanced bibliographic research class, with appropriate citations — but this is a class for you to express your own observations, interpretations, and evaluations, explaining exactly how you arrived at them. If possible, avoid incorporating someone else’s comments, but if you do, be sure to credit them (and state whether you agree or disagree and why).

What to Write About

You cannot write a brief paper on every aspect of every film you choose; you will need to limit yourself to one or two topics, especially if you are discussing more than one film. Be sure to follow any specific instructions for what each particular assignment is supposed to include and don’t waste time and space writing about something else. Whatever topic you choose, your paper should indicate that you have learned something from your reading, from the lectures, and from the film viewings in this class. You can look over the variety of specific suggestions presented in the outlines at the end of this section of the Manual, but keep the following broad areas of investigation in mind:

1. Theme. The theme is what the film is about, what it communicates to the viewer. The theme is not the plot of the film; it cannot be seen because it does not happen. The theme of a film is abstract—an idea. For example, the plot of the film Deliverance centers on four men on a hunting trip; the theme (or, at least, one theme) might be described as being about survival, and centers on various conflicts: man against nature, man against man, man against self. A theme tends to reflect the author and/or director’s point of view about life. The theme of a movie might be that true love conquers all, or life is worth living no matter what the obstacles, or that human nature is basically good and altruistic, or human nature is basically evil and selfish, or all people have the capacity for both good and evil. Underlying themes might imply that the wealth and power will corrupt the best, that poverty breeds crime, or that poverty and adversity build stronger moral values, etc. They might reinforce the idea that decisive individual action is the only reliable way to accomplish anything, or that only through compromise and group co-operation can problems be solved. They may support the value of diversity or the benefits of conformity. Sometimes a theme may be expressed as a familiar proverb. The theme is something that emerges in the course of the film. Note that different viewers may have different (and even opposing) ideas as to what constitutes a film’s theme. That’s one reason we have critics. It’s also why you must describe specific examples from the film that support your assertions.

2. Characterization. Characterization refers to how a film constructs the people whose actions constitute the film’s narrative. Characterization in a film is effective if a character’s actions and dialogue convince the viewer of their appropriateness, so that the character as a whole is seen as credible. A character, of course, is a created person who does not really exist, invented by the writer(s) and interpreted by the director and actor. An actor, on the other hand, is a real person who does exist, and portrays a character in a film or play. You should not confuse these two concepts when you discuss characterization. Sometimes, a character is specifically built around a certain actor’s personality (for example, many Jim Carrey, Clint Eastwood, Jackie Chan, or Eddie Murphy movies), but the two nevertheless remain distinct. Sometimes characters merely serve basic functions that fit into a formula plot, whereas other times the entire plot may be developed around how a certain type of character reacts in a certain situation.

3. Tone. The tone of a film is its prevailing atmosphere, such as joyousness, horror, or despair. This atmosphere can be created by many things: lighting, setting, music, color, sound, editing, and camera movement are some of them. The tone of a film is established by the sum total of all the elements that go into it. A film need not necessarily have a single or a consistent tone. For example, in Bonnie and Clyde the tone shifts from comic to somber to grotesque to tragic and back again. The tone of this film is deliberately inconsistent. In Nickelodeon, the tone of the first two-thirds is more light and playful, while the tone of the final third is more serious and even heavy at times. Some questions to ask about tone include: What is the prevailing tone and what subsidiary tones might there be? Is the tone consistent? If the tone shifts, where does the shift occur? Is it gradual or abrupt? Why does it shift—for what purpose? How is the tone expressed through the script (dialogue, events, props, settings, general attitude, etc.) and reinforced through various filmmaking techniques (lighting, editing, cinematography, music, etc.)? What relationship does the tone have to the overall theme or meaning of the film? Does it support the meaning or is it in conflict with the meaning?

4. Form. The concept of form is very broad and includes much of what we will be studying in this course during the semester. Briefly, form includes such matters as the screenplay structure and organization, the film image, the editing, and the sound. The form is the final result of organizing and expressing the content by means of technique. The image refers to the photographic properties of the film, its look. Under this term, one would include the quality and texture of the black and white or color photography, the composition (which includes the way people or objects are arranged within the frame), the lighting and décor (which includes set design, costumes, etc.), the movement of the camera or the absence thereof. Editing refers to the linking together of separate shots to form an entire and coherent film. Some questions to ask about the editing of a film include: Was the editing obvious or even noticeable? Was the film put together with many short shots or did the filmmaker depend more on long takes and camera movement? Did the editing create meaning in some way? Did the editing contract or expand or distort time in some way? What rhythm did the film have and how did the editing contribute? Did scene arrangement or cross-cutting between scenes appear to be part of the director and editor’s decisions to heighten the story, or did it come across as a preplanned formal structure written into the script and integral to the plot? Sound in a film falls into four categories: spoken dialogue and narration, sound effects (or noise), music, and silence. All of the aural elements in a film may be used simultaneously or individually to create aesthetic effects and convey information about the film’s content. Some questions you may want to ask about sound are: Was the sound especially noticeable (did you pay more than usual attention to it)? What kinds of sounds were used in the film? What were their separate functions? Did the sound support or complement the image on screen and/or the picture editing? Was the sound distorted for some particular purpose? What did the music of the film contribute?

There are, of course, many other things you can write about, but these suggestions should be helpful in getting you started. Any given film will lend itself to certain topics or approaches that might be harder to apply to some other film. Check your specific assignment for specific areas you will be expected to discuss in the paper you are writing.

You might also keep in mind some specific things to avoid and some things to do.

Some things to avoid

1. DO NOT recount the plot of the film. A plot summary is not analysis. Besides, I know the plot—I’ve already seen the films assigned for this class (except perhaps in the case of certain current releases). You can summarize the plot in a sentence or two if you wish, but what I want are your thoughts and observations about the film.

2. DO NOT write generally about an entire film; focus on a single element or a few aspects that interest you, and explore them as thoroughly as you can within the guidelines of the particular assignment.

3. AVOID meaningless subjective words like “great,” “good,” “effective,” “interesting,” “awesome,” etc. Instead, discuss why something was “effective”(or not)—effective in what way? What is it about the film that makes it “good” (or “bad”) in your opinion? Mere opinions persuade no one without concrete evidence and explanation.

4. DO NOT bother to define terms discussed in the text. You might find this helpful to do in your personal notebook for the class, but it is a waste of space to include in a short critical paper. I’ve read the textbook and I already know what the terms mean. Instead, you should simply use terms appropriate to your topic in ways showing that you understand what they mean. (See also Number 2 below.)

5. DO NOT—I repeat DO NOT explain what you are going to write about or what you have just written about. Just write about it! DO NOT repeat yourself unless you are consciously attempting to create a carefully calculated rhetorical effect! Your papers for this class are not long enough to begin with a formal abstract and conclude with a summary. Do not explain why you chose your film or topic. Just analyze it! Once again, DO NOT under any circumstances include any sentences even remotely resembling “The film I am going to discuss is _________, starring _______ and _________, directed by ____________” or “I decided that I would write about ____________, since I really enjoyed it when I saw it on TV in high school and always like films by ______________ or any films about ______________.”

Some things to do

1. DO focus on a specific and manageable topic suitable to the length of your paper. Have a thesis (a one-sentence summation of your point) clearly in mind before you begin to write. However, it is not necessary to state this thesis in the paper. It should be obvious from what you write (although it may be concisely summarized in your paper’s title).

2. DO explain how the filmmakers make use of the cinematic techniques and concepts we are learning about. Do not merely identify these to prove you can recognize them, but instead describe how the filmmakers use specific techniques and concepts to tell their story and make it more effective for the viewer. DO use terms discussed in the text (if appropriate to your points), employing the terms in ways that show you understand what they mean (but DO NOT DEFINE TERMS – see Number 4 above). Remember in each paper to stay within your particular assignment subject, whatever it happens to be (i.e., narrative form, mise en scene, cinematography, editing, etc.).

3. DO use specific examples from the film or films to support your thesis and any assertions you make. Be precise and accurate in describing your examples. (Hint—this is a good way to work elements of the plot into your discussion, if you feel you simply must talk about the plot!)

4. DO try to be imaginative in relation to your material. Make your paper something someone would want to read! Come to some sort of conclusion at the end (but don’t simply recap what you’ve just said).

5. DO follow a standard formal style of some sort. Prepare your paper neatly. Write in complete sentences with proper English grammar and punctuation. Check carefully for correct spellings of names, correct names of characters (don’t confuse the actors with the characters they portray on screen), as well as typographical errors, errors in grammar, etc. before turning in your paper. Type (or print out) double-spaced with 1” to 1.25” margins, using a typical 10 to 12-point typeface in “normal” mode (not bold or italic). Titles should be in Italics rather than underlined or simply capitalized. Pictures and fancy fonts won’t get you any extra credit. Appropriate font choices might be Palatino, Book Antiqua, Garamond, Caslon, Century Schoolbook, or the like. Times Roman, Arial, or Courier New are adequate. (NOTE: any screenplays should use the 12-point normal Courier font, with proper margin indents for scene description, character, and dialogue text. Be sure to ask if you are unsure about anything.)