Below is a list of potential exam questions. Some, but not all of them will make up your final. I am not sure which ones yet, but I will choose less than half of them. So, you should study them all.

You have two choices for this final:

a. If you do not want to take the exam at one of the scheduled times, you can hand in typed answers to any or all of the questions ahead of time. (But no later than Sunday evening, Dec 16, 7 p.m.). If you choose to hand in answers, I recommend that you answer them all because otherwise you may get a zero on questions I put on the final. Do not send answers by email - I will not look at them.

b. You can come and take the exam at one of the scheduled times. If you do, you may bring notes, typed answers or even the textbook along to help. The scheduled times are: Sunday, Dec 16, 7 p.m. and Monday, Dec 17, 7 p.m. (If you have trouble getting into the building on Sunday, come around to the door by the garage door in the back, I will see that it is open.)

I shouldn't have to say this, but I will: this is an individual exam, not a group exam. While some discussion with your buds is OK, you are to write your own answers. Do not borrow answers or copy from anyone. If you take the exam on Sunday, do not tell others what was on the exam.

Some of the questions are relatively straightforward, but some of the questions have less specific correct answers. So, you have choices in the way you choose to answer them. However you choose to answer them, make your answers logical and consistent and explain well. Of course, you must use good spelling, grammar, etc.

1. If you go to mountain ranges around the world, you will find that the rocks in them vary greatly. Some ranges contain mostly sedimentary rocks. Other ranges contain mostly igneous and metamorphic rocks. In general, those that contain sedimentary rocks don't contain many igneous or metamorphic rocks, and vice versa. Explain the process of mountain building. What forces are involved? Describe how mountains made of sedimentary rocks might form. Describe how mountains made of igneous rocks might form.

2. Clearly explain to me the difference between elements, rocks and minerals. What are the most common elements in the Earth's crust? Why are they so common? What are the most common rocks (give rock names)? Why are they so common? What are the most common minerals (give mineral names)? Why are they so common?

3a. The centers of most continents contain "shields" where very old igneous and metamorphic rocks are exposed in flat lying areas. They also contain platforms - areas of flat lying sedimentary rocks. We find most mountain belts at the edges of continents. Why do mountains mostly only form at the edges of continents? Why are there shields and platforms only in the middles in the middles?

3b. Every once and a while we find mountain ranges in the interior of continents. The Rockys and the Ural Mountains are examples. Explain how they formed and ended up where they are.

4. Some volcanoes are violent and dangerous. Others are not. Why? Give an example (give me a name) of each kind of volcano and describe how it erupts.

5. Mineralogists have identified thousands of minerals, yet less than 30 are common, and less than 15 are very common. Why so few common minerals?

6. What are the most common kinds of sedimentary rocks? Why are these kinds of rocks the most common?

7. Some sedimentary rock formations are found over very large areas. The Pierre Shale, for example, is a Cretaceous formation found in many states of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. Some formations, however, only crop out in a single state or even a single part of a state. Explain why some formations have wide aerial extent, while others do not.

8. High grade metamorphic rocks are those that form at high temperature. Low grade metamorphic rocks form at lower temperature. Give an example (give me a name) and describe one of each type of metamorphic rock. One thing that controls metamorphic grade is depth in the Earth. Which of these two formed at shallow levels in the Earth and which at deeper levels. Explain why? If we find metamorphic rocks today and determine that they must have formed deep in the Earth, how did they get up to the surface so we can find them?

9. Why are some volcanoes more violent and dangerous than others? Be specific about the reasons; there are several different ones. Don't just tell me what the different types of volcanoes do, tell me why they behave the way they do. Ooop - I see that I asked this question above, too.

10. The more recent portion of the geological time scale is divided into smaller units than the older part. And, we have a much better idea of Cenozoic earth history than of Mesozoic or Paleozoic. We have even less information about the Precambrian. Explain these observations.

11. If you looked at a map of the world showing locations of volcanic activity, you would find that most volcanoes are at the edges of continents. A few are in the middle of oceans, and even fewer in the middle of continents. Explain why volcanoes occur where they do.

12. How does running water transport sediment. Clearly explain the differences between the different types of load. When dissolved material, suspended material and bed-load material are deposited, what sorts of rocks does each produce. Be sure to use specific rock names in your answer.

13. If you look in any introductory geology book, there is generally a cross-section drawing of the earth with the crust, mantle and core labeled. Often, too, a drawing is shown with the asthenosphere and lithosphere labeled. How do geologists know that those different layers (crust, mantle, core, asthenosphere and lithosphere) exist?

14. The groundwater of the Red River Valley flows up and out of the ground in many places. Explain why and how water can flow uphill like that. Most of the groundwater in the Red River valley is saline and the recharge area is a long way away. Explain why. Some is freshwater, and the recharge for the freshwater is generally closer to the Valley than the recharge areas for saline water. Explain why? What I am getting at is: where do the two types of water come from and why is some fresh and some saline?

15. When rocks are stressed, they can be put under extensional stress, tensional stress, or shear stress. Contrast and compare the three. What sorts of structures (folds or faults) will result in each case?

16. The world has gone through cycles of glaciation many times during its long history. What are the most important factors that cause glaciation and cause the cyclicity? In other words, what is the currently accepted best explanation?

17. Most of the volcanic material deposited by Mt. Rainier is ash or pumice. Contrast this with the material that is deposited by Hawaiian volcanoes. What sort of volcanic rocks (what is the name of the rock type) are in Hawaii? Why are the different from those in the Cascade Range? Why do some volcanoes produce ash and pumice while others produce lava flows?

18. At Glacier Bay, John Muir discovered that glaciers had retreated over 45 miles. Why do glaciers retreat sometimes and advance other times? Why do you suppose there was so much retreating at Glacier Bay in the last 150 years?

19. Quartz comes in many different colors. But, when euhedral (look this word up if you don't know it) it is always vitreous and crystals have hexagonal shapes. Quartz never shows cleavage, always has a hardness of 7, and its density is always around 2.65 grams/cm3. Explain why almost all properties are identical for all samples of quartz. And, explain why color can be variable. Note that I could have chosen just about any other mineral and asked the same question.

20. Some earthquakes cause a great deal of damage and kill many people. Others do not. Of course, the strength of the Earthquake is one factor. Yet some large earthquakes do little harm, and some weaker ones do lots of harm. Explain how this can be. What other factors explain why some earthquakes are much worse than others?